1. Astronomy and planetary exploration reveal the structure, scale, and change of the solar system over time. As a basis for understanding this concept, students know

• how the differences and similarities among the sun, the terrestrial planets, and the gas planets may have been established during the formation of the solar system
  
• evidence from Earth and moon rocks indicate that the solar system was formed from a nebular cloud of dust and gas approximately 4.6 billion years ago * evidence from geological studies of the Earth and other planets that the early Earth was very different from today
  
• evidence that the planets are much closer than the stars
  
• the sun is a typical star and is powered by nuclear reactions, primarily the fusion of hydrogen to form helium
  
• evidence for the dramatic effects of asteroid impact in shaping the surface of planets and their moons, and in mass extinctions of life on Earth.

2. Earth-based and space-based astronomy reveals the structure, scale, and change over time of stars, galaxies and the universe. As a basis for understanding this concept, students know

• the solar system is located in an outer edge of the disc-shaped Milky Way galaxy which spans 100,000 light years
  
• galaxies are made of billions of stars and form most of the visible mass of the universe
  
• stars differ in their life cycles, and visual, radio, and X-ray telescopes collect data that reveal these differences.

3. Plate tectonics operating over geologic time has changed the patterns of land, sea, and mountains on the Earth's surface. As the basis for understanding this concept, students know

• features of the ocean floor (magnetic patterns, age, and sea floor topography) provide evidence for plate tectonics
  
• the principle structures that form at the three different kinds of plate boundaries
  
• how to explain the properties of rocks based on the physical and chemical conditions in which they formed, including plate tectonic processes
  
• why and how earthquakes occur, and the scales used to measure their intensity and magnitude
  
• * explanation for the location and properties of volcanoes that are due to hot spots and those that are due to subduction.

4. Energy enters the Earth's system primarily as solar radiation and eventually escapes as heat. As a basis for understanding this concept, students know

• the relative amount of incoming solar energy compared with Earth's internal energy and the energy used by society.
  
• the fate of incoming solar radiation in terms of reflection, absorption, and photosynthesis
  
• the different atmospheric gases that absorb the Earth's thermal radiation, and the mechanism and significance of the greenhouse effect.

5. Heating of Earth's surface and atmosphere by the sun drives convection within the atmosphere and oceans, producing winds and ocean currents. As a basis for understanding this concept, students know

• how differential heating of the Earth results in circulation patterns in the atmosphere and oceans that globally distribute the heat
  
• the relationship between the rotation of the Earth and the circular motion of ocean currents and air in pressure centers
  
• the origin and effects of temperature inversions
  
• properties of ocean water such as temperature and salinity can be used to explain the layered structure of the oceans, generation of horizontal and vertical ocean currents, and the geographic distribution of marine organisms
  
• the distribution of rain forests and deserts on Earth in bands at specific latitudes
  
• * the interaction of wind patterns, ocean currents, and mountain ranges that results in the global pattern of latitudinal bands of rain forests and deserts.

6. Climate is the long term average of a region's weather and depends on many factors. As a basis for understanding this concept, students know

• weather (in the short run) and climate (in the long run) involve the transfer of energy in and out of the atmosphere
  
• effects on climate of latitude, elevation, topography, as well as proximity to large bodies of water and cold or warm ocean currents
  
• how the Earth's climate has changed over time, corresponding to changes in the Earth's geography, atmospheric composition and/or other factors (solar radiation, plate movement, etc.).

7. Life has changed Earth's atmosphere and changes in the atmosphere affect conditions for life. As a basis for understanding this concept, students know

• the thermal structure and chemical composition of the atmosphere
  
• how the composition of the Earth's atmosphere has evolved over geologic time including outgassing, the origin of atmospheric oxygen, and variations in carbon dioxide concentration
  
• the location of the ozone layer in the upper atmosphere, its role in absorbing ultraviolet radiation and how it varies both naturally and in response to human activities.

8. The geology of California underlies the state's wealth of natural resources as well as its natural hazards. As a basis for understanding this concept, students know

• the importance of water to society, the origins of California's fresh water, and the relationship between supply and need.

9. The Periodic Table displays the elements in increasing atomic number and shows how periodicity of the physical and chemical properties of the elements relates to atomic structure. As a basis for understanding this concept, students know

• how to relate the position of an element in the Periodic Table to its atomic number and atomic mass
  
• how to use the Periodic Table to identify metals, semimetals, nonmetals, and halogens
  
• how to use the Periodic Table to identify alkali metals, alkaline earth metals and transition metals, and trends in ionization energy, electronegativity, and the relative sizes of ions and atoms
  
• how to use the Periodic Table to determine the number of electrons available for bonding
  
• the nucleus is much smaller in size than the atom yet contains most of its mass.

10. Biological, chemical, and physical properties of matter result from the ability of atoms to form bonds based on electrostatic forces between electrons and protons, and between atoms and molecules. As a basis for understanding this concept, students know

• atoms combine to form molecules by sharing electrons to form covalent or metallic bonds, or by exchanging electrons to form ionic bonds
  
• chemical bonds between atoms in molecules such as H2, CH4, NH3, H2CCH2, N2, Cl2, and many large biological molecules are covalent
  
• salt crystals such as NaCl are repeating patterns of positive and negative ions held together by electrostatic attraction
  
• in a liquid the inter-molecular forces are weaker than in a solid, so that the molecules can move in a random pattern relative to one-another
  
• how to draw Lewis dot structures.

11. The conservation of atoms in chemical reactions leads to the principle of conservation of matter and the ability to calculate the mass of products and reactants. As a basis for understanding this concept, students know

• how to describe chemical reactions by writing balanced equations
  
• the quantity one mole is defined so that one mole of carbon 12 atoms has a mass of exactly 12 grams
  
• one mole equals 6.02x1023 particles (atoms or molecules)
  
• how to determine molar mass of a molecule from its chemical formula and a table of atomic masses, and how to convert the mass of a molecular substance to moles.

12. The Kinetic Molecular theory describes the motion of atoms and molecules and explains the properties of gases. As a basis for understanding this concept, students know

• the random motion of molecules and their collisions with a surface create the observable pressure on that surface
  
• the random motion of molecules explains the diffusion of gases
  
• how to apply the gas laws to relations between the pressure, temperature, and volume of any amount of an ideal gas or any mixture of ideal gases
  
• the values and meanings of standard temperature and pressure (STP)
  
• how to convert between Celsius and Kelvin temperature scales
  
• there is no temperature lower than 0 Kelvin.

13. Acids, bases, and salts are three classes of compounds that form ions in water solutions. As a basis for understanding this concept, students know

• the observable properties of acids, bases and salt solutions
  
• acids are hydrogen-ion-donating and bases are hydrogen-ion-accepting substances
  
• strong acids and bases fully dissociate and weak acids and bases partially dissociate
  
• how to use the pH scale to characterize acid and base solutions.

14. Solutions are homogenous mixtures of two or more substances. As a basis for understanding this concept, students know

• definitions of solute and solvent
  
• how to describe the dissolving process as a result of random molecular motion
  
• temperature, pressure, and surface area affect the dissolving process.

15. Energy is exchanged or transformed in all chemical reactions and physical changes of matter. As a basis for understanding this concept, students know

• how to describe temperature and heat flow in terms of the motion of molecules (or atoms)
  
• chemical processes can either release (exothermic) or absorb (endothermic) thermal energy
  
• energy is released when a material condenses or freezes and absorbed when a material evaporates or melts.

16. Chemical reaction rates depend on factors that influence the frequency of collision of reactant molecules. As a basis for understanding this concept, students know

• the rate of reaction is the decrease in concentration of reactants or the increase in concentration of products with time
  
• how reaction rates depend on such factors as concentration, temperature, and pressure.
  
• the role a catalyst plays in increasing the reaction rate.

17. The bonding characteristics of carbon lead to many different molecules with varied sizes, shapes, and chemical properties, providing the biochemical basis of life. As a basis for understanding this concept, students know

• the bonding characteristics of carbon lead to a large variety of structures ranging from simple hydrocarbons to complex polymers and biological molecules.

18. Nuclear processes are those in which an atomic nucleus changes, including radioactive decay of naturally occurring and man-made isotopes, nuclear fission, and nuclear fusion. As a basis for understanding this concept, students know

• protons and neutrons in the nucleus are held together by strong nuclear forces which are stronger than the electromagnetic repulsion between the protons
  
• the energy release per gram of material is much larger in nuclear fusion or fission reactions than in chemical reactions: change in mass (calculated by E=mc) is small but significant in nuclear reactions
  
• many naturally occurring isotopes of elements are radioactive, as are isotopes formed in nuclear reactions
  
• the three most common forms of radioactive decay (alpha, beta, gamma) and how the nucleus changes in each type of decay
  
• alpha, beta, and gamma radiation produce different amounts and kinds of damage in matter and have different penetration.

19. Newton's laws predict the motion of most objects. As a basis for understanding this concept, students know

• how to solve problems involving constant speed and average speed
  
• when forces are balanced no acceleration occurs, and thus an object continues to move at a constant speed or stays at rest (Newton's first law)
  
• how to apply the law F=ma to solve one-dimensional motion problems involving constant forces (Newton's second law)
  
• when one object exerts a force on a second object, the second object always exerts a force of equal magnitude and opposite direction. (Newton's third law)
  
• the relationship between the universal law of gravitation and the effect of gravity on an object at the surface of the Earth
  
• applying a force to an object perpendicular to the direction of its motion causes the object to change direction but not speed (for example, the Earth's gravitational force causes a satellite in a circular orbit to change direction but not speed)
  
• circular motion requires application of a constant force directed toward the center of the circle
  
• * how to solve problems involving the forces between two electric charges at a distance (Coulomb's Law) or the forces between two masses at a distance (Universal gravitation).

20. The laws of conservation of energy and momentum provide a way to predict and describe the movement of objects. As a basis for understanding this concept, students know

• how to calculate kinetic energy using the formula E=(1/2)mv2
  
• how to calculate changes in gravitational potential energy near the Earth using the formula (change in potential energy) =mgh (change in the elevation)
  
• how to solve problems involving conservation of energy in simple systems such as falling objects
  
• how to calculate momentum as product mv
  
• momentum is a separately conserved quantity, different from energy
  
• an unbalanced force on an object produces a change in its momentum.

21. Energy cannot be created or destroyed although in many processes energy is transferred to the environment as heat. As a basis for understanding this concept, students know

• heat flow and work are two forms of energy transfer between systems
  
• the work done by a heat engine that is working in a cycle is the difference between the heat flow into the engine at high temperature and the heat flow out at a lower temperature (First Law of Thermodynamics) and that this is an example of the law of conservation of energy
  
• thermal energy (commonly called heat) consists of random motion and the vibrations and rotations of atoms and molecules. The higher the temperature, the greater the atomic or molecular motion.

22. Waves have characteristic properties that do not depend on the type of wave. As a basis for understanding this concept, students know

• waves carry energy from one place to another
  
• how to identify transverse and longitudinal waves in mechanical media such as springs, ropes, and the Earth (seismic waves)
  
• how to solve problems involving wavelength, frequency, and wave speed
  
• sound is a longitudinal wave whose speed depends on the properties of the medium in which it propagates
  
• radio waves, light and X-rays are different wavelength bands in the spectrum of electromagnetic waves whose speed in vacuum is approximately 3x108 m/s (186,000 miles/second)
  
• how to identify the characteristic properties of waves: interference (beats), diffraction, refraction, Doppler effect, and polarization.

23. Electric and magnetic phenomena are related and have many practical applications. As a basis for understanding this concept, students know

• how to predict the voltage or current in simple direct current electric circuits constructed from batteries, wires, resistors, and capacitors
  
• how to solve problems involving Ohm's law
  
• any resistive element in a DC circuit dissipates energy which heats the resistor. Students can calculate the power (rate of energy dissipation) in any resistive circuit element by using the formula Power = (potential difference IR) times (current I) = I2R
  
• charged particles are sources of electric fields and experience forces due to the electric fields from other charges
  
• magnetic materials and electric currents (moving electric charges) are sources of magnetic fields and experience forces due to magnetic fields of other sources.